Henri Bergson (1859–1941) was a towering figure in the intellectual world of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Born in Paris in 1859, Bergson became one of the most celebrated philosophers of his time, known for his innovative ideas on time, consciousness, and the nature of life itself. His work earned him widespread acclaim, including the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1927. The debates between Albert Einstein and Henri Bergson on the nature of time were a significant intellectual event of the early 20th century, pitting Einstein’s scientific conception of time as a measurable, objective phenomenon against Bergson’s philosophical view of time as a fluid, subjective experience, sparking discussions that resonated far beyond the realms of physics and philosophy.
Despite his profound influence, it’s important to emphasize that Bergson was not involved in any political movements. His philosophy, centered on concepts like intuition, creativity, and the élan vital (vital impulse), was purely intellectual, aimed at understanding the deeper truths of existence.
Yet, in the labyrinth of 20th-century history, Bergson’s ideas were appropriated by figures who twisted them to serve political ends, particularly Georges Sorel and the Italian Fascists. This appropriation is a fascinating, if troubling, episode in the history of ideas, where a philosopher’s work—meant to illuminate the mysteries of life—was repurposed to justify violence and authoritarianism. Understanding this story requires a closer look at Bergson’s philosophy and how it was misused by those who sought to counter Marxism with a new kind of revolutionary zeal.
Bergson’s Philosophy: A New Way of Thinking About Life
Henri Bergson’s philosophy was groundbreaking in many ways, but it’s best understood through a few key ideas that he developed over the course of his career:
- Intuition vs. Intellect:
Bergson made a sharp distinction between two ways of knowing the world: intellect and intuition. The intellect, he argued, is suited to dealing with the external, material world. It breaks things down into distinct, measurable parts, allowing us to manipulate and control our environment. However, this rational, scientific approach, according to Bergson, misses the essence of life itself.
Intuition, on the other hand, is a deeper, more immediate way of understanding. It allows us to grasp the flow of life directly, without breaking it into pieces. Intuition is the key to understanding time and consciousness as continuous, dynamic processes—what Bergson called “duration” (la durée).
- Élan Vital (Vital Impulse):
Central to Bergson’s philosophy is the concept of élan vital, a creative force that drives the evolution of life. Unlike the deterministic view of evolution as merely a series of mechanical processes, Bergson saw life as driven by a creative, unpredictable energy. This vital impulse is responsible for the diversity and complexity of life forms, continually pushing them toward greater complexity and freedom.
- Creative Evolution:
Bergson’s most famous work, Creative Evolution (1907), argues that life evolves not through blind chance or strict necessity, but through a creative process. This process is not entirely random, but it’s not entirely determined either. It’s a kind of improvisation, where new forms of life emerge in response to challenges and opportunities, guided by the élan vital.
These ideas were revolutionary in the philosophical world, challenging the dominant scientific and mechanistic views of the time. Bergson’s emphasis on intuition and creativity resonated with those who felt that the cold, rationalist approach of the Enlightenment and the Industrial Revolution had drained life of its mystery and vitality.
Georges Sorel: Twisting Bergson’s Ideas for Revolutionary Syndicalism
Georges Sorel, a French social theorist and key figure in the development of Revolutionary Syndicalism, was deeply influenced by Bergson’s philosophy. However, Sorel’s interest in Bergson was far from academic. He saw in Bergson’s ideas a powerful tool to challenge the dominant ideologies of his time, particularly Marxism.
Marxism, with its emphasis on historical materialism and economic determinism, viewed history as a predictable progression toward socialism. Sorel rejected this deterministic view, arguing that it led to passivity among workers, who were encouraged to wait for the inevitable rather than take action. He turned to Bergson’s philosophy to articulate a new kind of revolutionary strategy, one that emphasized action, creativity, and the unpredictable nature of social change.
One of Sorel’s most influential ideas was the concept of the “myth.” Inspired by Bergson’s idea of intuition, Sorel argued that myths could inspire and mobilize the masses in ways that rational arguments and scientific socialism could not. Myths, he believed, spoke to the deeper, emotional truths that could drive people to action. His most famous example of a revolutionary myth was the “general strike,” a concept that galvanized the working class to rise up against the capitalist system. The power of the myth lay not in its literal truth but in its ability to inspire collective action. This idea was deeply influenced by Bergson’s view of intuition as a way to grasp deeper, non-rational truths.
Sorel also borrowed from Bergson’s idea of the élan vital to justify the use of violence in revolutionary struggles. He saw violence not as a mere tool, but as a purifying force that could sweep away the corrupt, decaying structures of bourgeois society. In this, Sorel echoed Bergson’s idea of the vital impulse as a creative, life-affirming force, but he twisted it to justify revolutionary violence.
Italian Fascism: The Dark Appropriation of Bergson and Sorel
The story takes an even darker turn when we consider how Sorel’s ideas were picked up by the emerging fascist movements in Italy. Benito Mussolini, the leader of Italian Fascism, and his intellectual circle were drawn to Sorel’s emphasis on action, myth, and violence. They saw in Sorel’s ideas a way to counter both liberal democracy and Marxism, creating a new kind of political movement that rejected both in favor of a totalitarian state.
Just as Sorel used myths to inspire revolutionary syndicalism, the Italian Fascists used nationalist and militaristic myths to unify and mobilize the Italian people. The myth of the “new Roman Empire,” for instance, was used to evoke a sense of destiny and purpose, justifying aggressive expansion and authoritarian rule. Fascists borrowed the idea that myths were powerful, not because they were true, but because they could inspire action. This idea, rooted in Bergson’s philosophy as adapted by Sorel, became a cornerstone of fascist propaganda.
Fascism also embraced Sorel’s idea of violence as a purifying force. Mussolini’s Blackshirts—the paramilitary wing of the Fascist Party—used violence to intimidate and eliminate political opponents, justifying their actions as necessary to cleanse the nation of weakness and corruption. It’s important to note that leftist movements often exhibit a tendency toward violence and terror, particularly when clashing with other leftist factions that differ in tactics and/or strategy. As the saying goes, the struggle within the species is often the most brutal.
While Bergson’s concept of the élan vital was meant to celebrate the creative, life-affirming forces in the universe, in the hands of the fascists, it was distorted into a justification for brutality and authoritarianism.
Bergson’s Legacy: A Star Figure Unjustly Linked to Dark Movements
It’s crucial to underscore that Henri Bergson himself had nothing to do with these political movements. Bergson was a philosopher who sought to explore the mysteries of life and consciousness, not a political activist. His ideas were meant to enrich our understanding of the world, not to justify violence or authoritarianism.
Bergson’s own life was marked by a deep commitment to intellectual and moral values. He was a prominent public figure, admired by many, and his work was widely respected across the world. However, during World War II, Bergson faced the harsh realities of the political world when the Vichy government, which collaborated with Nazi Germany, imposed anti-Semitic laws. Although offered an exemption due to his fame and achievements, Bergson chose to show solidarity with other Jews by not accepting special treatment. He died in Vichy, France, in 1941, a year marked by the suffering of many under totalitarian regimes—regimes that, ironically and tragically, had misused some of the ideas that originated in his philosophical inquiries.
The Misuse of Ideas
The story of how Henri Bergson’s philosophy was appropriated and distorted by figures like Georges Sorel and later by Mussolini’s Fascists is a powerful reminder of the dangers inherent in the misuse of intellectual ideas. Despite Bergson’s significant contributions to the understanding of time, consciousness, and creativity, his work fell into relative obscurity after World War II, largely due to its unfortunate association with these dark political movements.
The unfortunate legacy of his ideas’ appropriation by fascists reminds us of the complex and often unpredictable ways in which philosophical ideas can influence the world. It also serves as a reminder that the intentions of a philosopher are not always aligned with how their ideas are used in the political arena. In the end, Bergson remains a star figure in the world of philosophy, his work celebrated for its originality and depth. The misuse of his ideas by others only highlights the importance of understanding philosophical concepts within their proper context and using them to enlighten rather than to manipulate or oppress.
